History and Perspectives of Psychology

Definitions:


psychology: the scientific study of mind and behavior


mind: our private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings


behavior: observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals


brain: the organ of thought


structuralism: the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind


functionalism: the study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment


Learning Objectives:

Compare/contrast functionalism and structuralism:

Structuralism, founded by Wundt and his students, is an approach, which deal with the idea of breaking down consciousness into elemental sensations and feelings.
Functionalism, on the other hand, focuses more on trying to understand the functions that mental processes serve.

Identify ways in which Canada has shaped different areas in psychology.

There have been many great Canadian psychologists, each contributing to the field of psychology in their own unique ways.  
Examples…

Wilder Penfield
-stimulated parts of the brain and linked them to bodily functions

Brenda Milner
-Known for her studies on the cognitive function of the frontal lobes,
temporal lobes, and hippocampus.
-She received and award in Neuroscience
-studied a man named HM who could not form new memories and lived in the present, so to speak

Donald O. Hebb
-he pioneered the idea that everything in our nervous system was connected, through neurons and synapses

Ronald Melzack
-Extensive studies on the gate control theory of pain

J. Philippe Rushton
-infamous evolutionary psychologist studying racial differences (and comparing penile lengths)


John MacEachran
-infamous Wundt student who practiced negative eugenics on what he deemed bad genes (which, for the record, did not pass on through sexual reproduction). He sterilized disabled people, whether they were disabled physically or mentally.

Douglas Wahlsten
-Mouse Genome Project
-Studied the role of the corpus callosum



Fergus Craik 
-the more effort you put into learning, the more likely it will be encoded (levels of processing)

Endel Tulving
-Work with Encoding vs. Retrieval in terms of memory

Ewen Cameron
-psychiatrist gone mad. Part of a CIA-funded brainwashing research program, and drugged depressed women. Got away with a lot of things, as he was the president of the APA (American Psychiatric Association) in 1953.

Thought Question
My high school history teacher always said, “If you don’t read history, you relive it.” Why do we care about the history of psychology?

Without studying and considering the history of psychology, we would not be able to understand how far we have come. Solving a puzzle takes time, and every mistake teaches you something. Taken all together, the mistakes and the truths, we can more easily identify that progress that psychology has made in the world today. It’s all about learning from your mistakes. =)

Research Methods

Definitions:

-empiricism: originally a Greek school of medicine that stressed the importance of observation, and now generally used to describe any attempt to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events

-scientific method: a set of rules and techniques for observation that allow researchers to avoid the illusions, mistakes and erroneous conclusions that simple observation can produce 

-operational definition: a description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured 

-independent variable: the variable that is manipulated in an experiment

-dependent variable: the variable that is measured in a study 

-validity: the characteristic of an observation that allows one to draw accurate inferences from it 

-reliability: the tendency for a measure to produce the same results when it is used to measure the same thing

-population: the complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured

-sample: the partial collection of people who actually were measured in a study

-observational/ descriptive study: study in which inferences are drawn or hypotheses tested through observational methods.

-correlational study: the co relationship of pattern of covariation between two variables, each of which has been measured several times

-quasi-experimental study: an experimental design without random assignment

-experiment: a technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables 

-observer expectancy: a form of reactivity, in which a researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment

-primary resource: describes source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied

-secondary resource: is a document or recording that relates or discusses information originally presented elsewhere

Learning Objectives:

Describe the function of the different components of the research process:

Define your purpose and identify your topic - This will help focus your research.
Obtain background information to familiarize yourself with the topic - This will give you more direction in your research, as well as a more comprehensive understanding of the topic.
Refine and narrow down your topic to achieve a manageable focus - This will allow you to search for a specific topic and provide relevant and accurate results in your search.
Consider your resource options - This is really for your own convenience, as well as for the accuracy and relevancy of the sources to your topic.
Access and select appropriate resources - This is where you begin your research and learn your topic more in-depth.
Analyze research content - This is where you appraise your research content and decide whether you have searched for the right material or not.
Present information - This is where you distribute what you have found unto the greater public, may it be everyone in general or a select scholarly group.

Compare / Contrast observational/ descriptive, correlational, quasi experimental and experimental studies

An observational study is a study in which inferences are drawn or hypotheses tested through observational methods while a descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation. A correlational study is a relational study to explain and predict; compares two or more different characteristics from the same group of people. Quasi experimental study relates to the setting up a particular type of an experiment or other study in which one has little or no control over the allocation of the treatments or other factors being studied. An experimental study is a study in which conditions are under the direct control of the investigator.

Identify causal and correlational hypotheses 

A causal hypothesis is a hypothesis that predicts a direct cause-and-effect relationship among the variables to be studied; while a correlational hypothesis links variables in a cause-and-effect relationship as well, oftentimes it links a third variable into a two-variable system. While two variables may have a direct causal relationship, a correlational relationship does not necessarily have a causal relationship (two variables may be related somehow, but does not directly cause the other; they may be independent of each other)


Compare/contrast observational/descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, and experimental studies.


Know that an observational/descriptive study aims to see what happens in a certain scenario, a correlational study attempts to identify causal relationships, a quasi-experimental study is an experimental design with no random assignment, and an experimental study has all variables necessary to be controlled, controlled. The four types of studies are listed in an order of increasing artificial interference.


Identify which research design is used in specific examples.


This is basically the same knowledge as above-mentioned, just used in a slightly different context.


Identify independent and dependent variables


Independent variables are otherwise known as manipulated or controlled variables (manipulated and controlled variables are NOT the same thing) and dependent variables are otherwise known as responding variables. Independent variables are what may cause a result, and dependent variables are basically the result.


Identify which research setting is used in specific examples


This draws upon knowing what research design and data collection methods are being used.


Identify which data collection method is used in specific examples


Lab studies have controlled variables, whereas field studies are merely observational; no one can interfere with the observed environment. A self-report is self-explanatory; the results are provided from those being observed. An observation requires the observer to record necessary data.


Apply the scientific method to investigate different research questions


Basically, know your information literacy decently well. As long as your method will give unbiased, accurate, and relevant results, you should be fine.


Recognize different examples of observer expectancy


If the observer isn't genuinely being his/herself, there will be observer expectancy.


Compare/contrast efficient and inefficient Web searching


Remember all those limiters (Boolean operators "AND" and "NOT", quotations, advanced searches) and expanders (Boolean operator "OR", truncations, wildcards).


Compare/contrast searching for information on the Web versus searching a database of published research


Remember that the Web can have good resources, and bad resources. Arbitrarily searching, you never know if you are using a credible source. Chances are, a database of published research will yield very scholarly, accurate, credible, etc. resources.


Recognize the importance of critically appraising Web resources


With a number of sources to use, critically appraising them can eliminate irrelevant sources or inaccurate ones. This just makes your study more refined and makes you look better when you use good sources (if people check your sources and they are good, you look credible).


Describe and rationalize a research strategy for finding resources for a personal or course-based research project


Go over the information literacy modules! That, combined with common sense, will allow you to succeed!


Thought Question:



The following is an abstract (brief summary of a research study) from a recent study we completed in the Varnhagen lab:


lol: New Language and Spelling in Instant Messaging


Written communication in instant messaging, text messaging, chat, and other forms of electronic communication appears to have generated a “new language” of abbreviations, acronyms, word combinations, and punctuation.  In this study, we identified different types of new language use in instant messaging and examined the relationship between new language use and spelling ability. Adolescents collected their instant messaging conversations for a one week period and then completed a spelling test delivered over instant messaging.  We first identified 14 categories of new language use, such as acronyms (e.g., typing bf for boyfriend), word combinations (e.g., typing gonna for going to), and emotion words (e.g. hahaha to represent laughing).  We then found correlations between new language use and spelling ability.  Use of new language to speed up typing, such as using acronyms and abbreviations, were most common in the instant messaging conversations; typographical errors and spelling mistakes were relatively uncommon in the instant messaging conversations.  With rare exceptions, notably true spelling errors, spelling ability was not related to use of new language. The categories we defined form the instant messages provide an important tool for investigating new language and the correlation results provide partial evidence that new language does not have a 
harmful effect on conventional written language. 


a) What was(were) the research question(s) in this study?


b) What research design did we use?


c) What types of data did we collect?


d) Where did we collect the data?


e) What was(were) the answer(s) to the research question(s)?


a) Does electronic communication affect spelling in written communication?


b) A correlational design, or even a quasi-experimental design was used.


c) Self-reported data was collected.


d) The data was collected in the field.


e) It turns out that electronic communication does not affect spelling in written communication for the most part.

Neuroscience

Definitions:

neuron – cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information processing tasks

cell body – the part of the neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive

dendrite – the part of the neuron that receives information from other neurons and sends it into the cell body

axon – the part of the neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles or glands

myelin sheath – an insulating layer on the neurons

association areas – areas of the cerebral cortex that are composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex

glial cell – the support cells found in the nervous system

synapse – junction region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another

afferent neuron – neurons that conduct impulses inwards to the brain or spinal cord

efferent neuron – neurons that conduct impulses outward from the brain and spinal cord

interneuron – neurons that connect to motor neurons, sensory neurons and other inter neurons

action potential – an electric signal that is conducted along an axon to a synapse


neurotransmitter – chemicals that are transmit information across the synapse to the dendrites of the receiving neurons

hormone – chemical substances that are produced in the endocrine system and then are transported in the blood to certain tissues, for specific functions

central nervous system – the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system – the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body, organs and muscles

autonomic nervous system – the set of nerves that carry involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands

sympathetic nervous system – the nerves that prepares the body for action in a threatening situation

parasympathetic nervous system – nerves that help the body return to a normal resting state

brain stem – a portion of the brain that continues with the spinal cord and comprises of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and parts of the hypothalamus, functioning in the control of reflexes, internal respirations and heart beat

medulla – the extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration

RAF - the reticular activating formation is a brain structure that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal

cerebellum – a large structure of the hind brain that controls fine motor skills

pons – the brain structure that sends information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

cerebral cortex – the outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye and is divided into two hemispheres 

thalamus – subcortical structure that sends and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex

hypothalamus – a structure that regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behaviour

limbic system – group of the forebrain structures including the hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus, which are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory

hippocampus – a critical structure for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex

amygdala - part of the limbic system that has a central role in many emotion processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories 

basal ganglia – a set of structures that directs intentional movements

corpus callosum – thick band of nerve fibres that connect the large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres

occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal lobes – these lobes of the cerebral cortex are primarily related with visuals, information processing and touch, hearing and language, movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgment

Learning Objectives:

Identify different functions of the nervous system

• convey chemical information throughout the body
• contains the central and peripheral which carry out different functions within the body

Identify structure and function of different parts of the neuron

• dendrite - receives information from other neurons and sends it into the cell body
• cell body - coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
• axons - transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Compare/contrast the different classes of neurons

• sensory neurons - takes information from the external forces and sends it to the spinal cord
• motor neurons - carry information from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement
• interneuron - connect sensory neurons to motor neurons and other interneurons

Compare/contrast electrical versus chemical stimulation of a nerve

• electrical impulses send electrical currents
• chemical stimulus - chemicals are secreted into the synapse to be picked up by dendrites for the neuron to send the information

Describe how excitatory and inhibitory processes work in transmission across the synapse

• excitatory starts the transmission and inhibitory stops it

Compare/contrast different classes of neurotransmitters

• all the neurotransmitters are found on table 3.1 in the textbook on page 83

Recognize the relative importance of different brain regions and structures for sustaining life, for human functioning, and for human cognition

• the different brain regions help us categorize the information and help us carry out different functions throughout or bodies

Describe empirical evidence for asymmetry in language function

• thanks to split-brain patients, the left hemisphere is more dominant to verbalize given knowledge; in example, one can say they saw Leonardo DiCaprio when his face is shown to their right visual field
• looking at patients with Broca's aphasia, we can conclude that Broca's area in the left hemisphere is responsible for the planning of language
• looking at patients with Wernicke's aphasia, we can conclude that Wernicke's area, also in the left hemisphere, is responsible for the understanding of language

Diagram routes for vision, audition, language, and motor control within the central nervous system

• Vision  -optic nerve -thalamus -occipital lobe
• Audition -hair cells -thalamus -temporal lobes -Wernicke's area -frontal lobes
• Language -Broca's area -frontal lobes -midbrain -motor neurons
• Motor -motor area -midbrain -motor neurons

Identify the location and function of brainstem, medula oblongata, thalamus, reticular activating formation, cerebellum, basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, the four lobes of the cerebral cortex, and the corpus callosum

• the functions are within the definitions

Compare/contrast the damage and loss of function accompanying Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia

• Wernicke's aphasia – lack of understanding language
• Broca’s aphasia- inability to plan sensible language

Identify asymmetries in the function of the cerebral hemispheres and how this relates to language 

• looking at language specifically, the left cerebral hemisphere is where information is consolidated, and language is planned

Predict deficits in function that arise from severing the corpus callosum

• a split-brain patient will not be able to verbalize and point to the correct image if two different images are shown to a certain visual field

Thought Question:

Which part of the brain is the most important? In your discussion, decide on what "important" means and develop a good argument for the part that you select as most important.

All parts of the brain are important. Without the hindbrain, we are unable to live; without the midbrain, we are unable to live on as a species; without the forebrain, we are unable to appreciate life as we know it; in fact, we would not have come so far as a technologically-advanced society without the forebrain.