Memory

Definitions:

• memory - the ability to store and retrieve information over time

• encoding - the process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

• storage - the process of maintaining information in memory over time

• retrieval - the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

• elaborative encoding - the process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory

• visual imagery encoding - the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

• organizational encoding - the act of categorizing information by noticing the relationships among a series of items

• sensory memory - the place in which sensory information is kept for a few seconds or less

• iconic memory - a fast decaying store of visual information

• echoic memory - a fast decaying store of auditory information

• working memory - active maintenance of information in short term storage

• rehearsal - the process of keeping information in short term memory by mentally repeating it

• chunking - combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short term memory

• long term memory - a place in which information can be kept for hours, days, weeks, or years

• anterograde amnesia - the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

• retrograde amnesia - the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation

• long term potentiation - enhanced neural processing that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections

• encoding specificity principle - the idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded

• state-dependent retrieval - the tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval

• explicit memory - the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

• implicit memory - the influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance, even though people are not away that they are remembering them

• procedural memory - the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or “knowing how” to do things

• semantic memory - a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

• episodic memory - the collection of past personal experiences that occured at a particular time and place

• priming - an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus

• proactive interference - situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later

• retroactive interference - situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier

• blocking - a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it

• tip-of-tongue phenomenon - the temporary inability to retrieve information that is stored in memory, accompanied by the feeling that you are on the verge of recovering the information

• false recognition - a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before

• flashbulb memory - detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events

Learning Outcomes:

Identify the function of the components of the modal model of memory

sensory memory - hold information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics

working memory store - conscious processing of information, where information is actively worked on

maintenance rehearsal - mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual thirty seconds

encoding - once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long term memory

long term memory store - organizes and stores information, more passive form of working memory

retrieval - process that controls flow of information from long term to working memory store


Define iconic and echoic memory

Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information and an echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information. Echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information.


Recognize the function of the components of working memory

Working memory is the active maintenance of information in short term storage. The components are rehearsal, which is the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it, and chunking which involves combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks.


Identify the functions of attention, encoding, and retrieval processes

Attention is defined as being the means by which we actively process a limited amount of information from the enormous amount of information available through our senses, stored memories, and our other cognitive processes. Encoding is the process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory. Retrieval is when the mind uses cues, active in short term memory, to probe for pieces of the specific memory/facts desired.

Recognize the values of and examples of rehearsal, elaboration, organization, and visualization

Rehearsal is the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it works so well because each time you are reentering it into short-term memory; trying to keep a number in your short term memory while trying to find a pencil. Elaborative encoding enhances subsequent retention, thinking about a word’s meaning results in deeper processing and better memory for the word later than merely attending to its sound or shape. Organizational encoding the act of categorizing information by noticing the relationships among a series of items. Visualization involves storing new information by converting it into mental pictures, when you create a visual image, you relate incoming information to knowledge already in memory. 

Describe short term memory strategies and their function

Short term memory strategies include rehearsal and chunking; rehearsal is the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it; chunking involves combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks. 

Describe long term memory encoding strategies and their functions

Long term memory store is a place in which information can be kept for hours, days, weeks or years. Episodic memory refers to our ability to recall personal experiences from our past.Semantic memory stores facts and generalized information. It contains verbal information, concepts, rules, principles, and problem-solving skills. Procedural memory refers to the ability to remember how to perform a task or to employ a strategy. 

Recognize examples of encoding specificity, context dependent memory, and state dependent memory

Encoding specificity is the probability of successful retrieval of the target item is a montonically increasing function of informational overlap between the information present at retrieval and the information stored in memory; example when you go upstairs, wanted something that is downstairs, gone downstairs and then forgotten what you wanted, in fact it is only when you go back upstairs again that you remember what it was that you wanted. Context dependent memory involves the recall of information in the same or similar place or situation as when the memory was formed. Alcohol-related state-dependent memory is known to occur with humans. Heavy drinkers may forget what they did while drunk, only to remember again the next time they drink.

Describe how retrieval involves the reconstruction of memory

Retrieval is the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored, this is done by the help of retrieval cues which are external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind.


Distinguish components and functions of explicit and implicit memory

Explicit memory occurs when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences. Implicit memory occurs when past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them.

Compare/Contrast implicit and explicit memory

Explicit memory is the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences while implicit memory is the influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance, even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them. Explicit = studying and recalling facts; implicit = flinching every time someone tries to hit you because you were hit before. 

Identify the components of the nervous system that are important for memory

The components of the nervous system that are important for memory are frontal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, and the hippocampus. All these play an important part in memory.

Thought Question:

Q: I hold workshops to help instructors teach more effectively. Some of the tips I give out in my workshops are:

Provide students with learning objectives

Provide students with lecture notes-but not all the notes

Hold the final exam in the classroom, and not the Butterdome, if at all possible.

Based on what you know about memory, why do I include these teaching tips? Be sure to use appropriate terminology. 

A: Holding the final exam in the classroom has to do with state dependent retrieval which is the tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval. Providing student’s with learning objectives has to do with encoding, students use organizational, elaborative, and visual encoding to help them answer the questions and memorize the information. Providing students with partial notes gives them an initiative to come to class where they can learn in the classroom that they will be writing their test in (state dependent retrieval). In addition to state dependent retrieval, partial notes are used in order to make students more involved - with more effort put into learning material (such as adding your own notes to the ones provided), it is more likely to encode the information into long-term memory, as proposed by Fergus Craik.