Definitions:
-empiricism: originally a Greek school of medicine that stressed the importance of observation, and now generally used to describe any attempt to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events
-scientific method: a set of rules and techniques for observation that allow researchers to avoid the illusions, mistakes and erroneous conclusions that simple observation can produce
-operational definition: a description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured
-independent variable: the variable that is manipulated in an experiment
-dependent variable: the variable that is measured in a study
-validity: the characteristic of an observation that allows one to draw accurate inferences from it
-reliability: the tendency for a measure to produce the same results when it is used to measure the same thing
-population: the complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured
-sample: the partial collection of people who actually were measured in a study
-observational/ descriptive study: study in which inferences are drawn or hypotheses tested through observational methods.
-correlational study: the co relationship of pattern of covariation between two variables, each of which has been measured several times
-quasi-experimental study: an experimental design without random assignment
-experiment: a technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables
-observer expectancy: a form of reactivity, in which a researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment
-primary resource: describes source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied
-secondary resource: is a document or recording that relates or discusses information originally presented elsewhere
Learning Objectives:
Describe the function of the different components of the research process:
Define your purpose and identify your topic - This will help focus your research.Obtain background information to familiarize yourself with the topic - This will give you more direction in your research, as well as a more comprehensive understanding of the topic.
Refine and narrow down your topic to achieve a manageable focus - This will allow you to search for a specific topic and provide relevant and accurate results in your search.
Consider your resource options - This is really for your own convenience, as well as for the accuracy and relevancy of the sources to your topic.
Access and select appropriate resources - This is where you begin your research and learn your topic more in-depth.
Analyze research content - This is where you appraise your research content and decide whether you have searched for the right material or not.
Present information - This is where you distribute what you have found unto the greater public, may it be everyone in general or a select scholarly group.
Compare / Contrast observational/ descriptive, correlational, quasi experimental and experimental studies
An observational study is a study in which inferences are drawn or hypotheses tested through observational methods while a descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation. A correlational study is a relational study to explain and predict; compares two or more different characteristics from the same group of people. Quasi experimental study relates to the setting up a particular type of an experiment or other study in which one has little or no control over the allocation of the treatments or other factors being studied. An experimental study is a study in which conditions are under the direct control of the investigator.
Identify causal and correlational hypotheses
A causal hypothesis is a hypothesis that predicts a direct cause-and-effect relationship among the variables to be studied; while a correlational hypothesis links variables in a cause-and-effect relationship as well, oftentimes it links a third variable into a two-variable system. While two variables may have a direct causal relationship, a correlational relationship does not necessarily have a causal relationship (two variables may be related somehow, but does not directly cause the other; they may be independent of each other)
Compare/contrast observational/descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, and experimental studies.
Know that an observational/descriptive study aims to see what happens in a certain scenario, a correlational study attempts to identify causal relationships, a quasi-experimental study is an experimental design with no random assignment, and an experimental study has all variables necessary to be controlled, controlled. The four types of studies are listed in an order of increasing artificial interference.
Identify which research design is used in specific examples.
This is basically the same knowledge as above-mentioned, just used in a slightly different context.
Identify independent and dependent variables
Independent variables are otherwise known as manipulated or controlled variables (manipulated and controlled variables are NOT the same thing) and dependent variables are otherwise known as responding variables. Independent variables are what may cause a result, and dependent variables are basically the result.
Identify which research setting is used in specific examples
This draws upon knowing what research design and data collection methods are being used.
Identify which data collection method is used in specific examples
Lab studies have controlled variables, whereas field studies are merely observational; no one can interfere with the observed environment. A self-report is self-explanatory; the results are provided from those being observed. An observation requires the observer to record necessary data.
Apply the scientific method to investigate different research questions
Basically, know your information literacy decently well. As long as your method will give unbiased, accurate, and relevant results, you should be fine.
Recognize different examples of observer expectancy
If the observer isn't genuinely being his/herself, there will be observer expectancy.
Compare/contrast efficient and inefficient Web searching
Remember all those limiters (Boolean operators "AND" and "NOT", quotations, advanced searches) and expanders (Boolean operator "OR", truncations, wildcards).
Compare/contrast searching for information on the Web versus searching a database of published research
Remember that the Web can have good resources, and bad resources. Arbitrarily searching, you never know if you are using a credible source. Chances are, a database of published research will yield very scholarly, accurate, credible, etc. resources.
Recognize the importance of critically appraising Web resources
With a number of sources to use, critically appraising them can eliminate irrelevant sources or inaccurate ones. This just makes your study more refined and makes you look better when you use good sources (if people check your sources and they are good, you look credible).
Describe and rationalize a research strategy for finding resources for a personal or course-based research project
Go over the information literacy modules! That, combined with common sense, will allow you to succeed!
Thought Question:
The following is an abstract (brief summary of a research study) from a recent study we completed in the Varnhagen lab:
lol: New Language and Spelling in Instant Messaging
Written communication in instant messaging, text messaging, chat, and other forms of electronic communication appears to have generated a “new language” of abbreviations, acronyms, word combinations, and punctuation. In this study, we identified different types of new language use in instant messaging and examined the relationship between new language use and spelling ability. Adolescents collected their instant messaging conversations for a one week period and then completed a spelling test delivered over instant messaging. We first identified 14 categories of new language use, such as acronyms (e.g., typing bf for boyfriend), word combinations (e.g., typing gonna for going to), and emotion words (e.g. hahaha to represent laughing). We then found correlations between new language use and spelling ability. Use of new language to speed up typing, such as using acronyms and abbreviations, were most common in the instant messaging conversations; typographical errors and spelling mistakes were relatively uncommon in the instant messaging conversations. With rare exceptions, notably true spelling errors, spelling ability was not related to use of new language. The categories we defined form the instant messages provide an important tool for investigating new language and the correlation results provide partial evidence that new language does not have a
harmful effect on conventional written language.
a) What was(were) the research question(s) in this study?
b) What research design did we use?
c) What types of data did we collect?
d) Where did we collect the data?
e) What was(were) the answer(s) to the research question(s)?
a) Does electronic communication affect spelling in written communication?
b) A correlational design, or even a quasi-experimental design was used.
c) Self-reported data was collected.
d) The data was collected in the field.
e) It turns out that electronic communication does not affect spelling in written communication for the most part.
Compare/contrast observational/descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, and experimental studies.
Know that an observational/descriptive study aims to see what happens in a certain scenario, a correlational study attempts to identify causal relationships, a quasi-experimental study is an experimental design with no random assignment, and an experimental study has all variables necessary to be controlled, controlled. The four types of studies are listed in an order of increasing artificial interference.
Identify which research design is used in specific examples.
This is basically the same knowledge as above-mentioned, just used in a slightly different context.
Identify independent and dependent variables
Independent variables are otherwise known as manipulated or controlled variables (manipulated and controlled variables are NOT the same thing) and dependent variables are otherwise known as responding variables. Independent variables are what may cause a result, and dependent variables are basically the result.
Identify which research setting is used in specific examples
This draws upon knowing what research design and data collection methods are being used.
Identify which data collection method is used in specific examples
Lab studies have controlled variables, whereas field studies are merely observational; no one can interfere with the observed environment. A self-report is self-explanatory; the results are provided from those being observed. An observation requires the observer to record necessary data.
Apply the scientific method to investigate different research questions
Basically, know your information literacy decently well. As long as your method will give unbiased, accurate, and relevant results, you should be fine.
Recognize different examples of observer expectancy
If the observer isn't genuinely being his/herself, there will be observer expectancy.
Compare/contrast efficient and inefficient Web searching
Remember all those limiters (Boolean operators "AND" and "NOT", quotations, advanced searches) and expanders (Boolean operator "OR", truncations, wildcards).
Compare/contrast searching for information on the Web versus searching a database of published research
Remember that the Web can have good resources, and bad resources. Arbitrarily searching, you never know if you are using a credible source. Chances are, a database of published research will yield very scholarly, accurate, credible, etc. resources.
Recognize the importance of critically appraising Web resources
With a number of sources to use, critically appraising them can eliminate irrelevant sources or inaccurate ones. This just makes your study more refined and makes you look better when you use good sources (if people check your sources and they are good, you look credible).
Describe and rationalize a research strategy for finding resources for a personal or course-based research project
Go over the information literacy modules! That, combined with common sense, will allow you to succeed!
Thought Question:
The following is an abstract (brief summary of a research study) from a recent study we completed in the Varnhagen lab:
lol: New Language and Spelling in Instant Messaging
Written communication in instant messaging, text messaging, chat, and other forms of electronic communication appears to have generated a “new language” of abbreviations, acronyms, word combinations, and punctuation. In this study, we identified different types of new language use in instant messaging and examined the relationship between new language use and spelling ability. Adolescents collected their instant messaging conversations for a one week period and then completed a spelling test delivered over instant messaging. We first identified 14 categories of new language use, such as acronyms (e.g., typing bf for boyfriend), word combinations (e.g., typing gonna for going to), and emotion words (e.g. hahaha to represent laughing). We then found correlations between new language use and spelling ability. Use of new language to speed up typing, such as using acronyms and abbreviations, were most common in the instant messaging conversations; typographical errors and spelling mistakes were relatively uncommon in the instant messaging conversations. With rare exceptions, notably true spelling errors, spelling ability was not related to use of new language. The categories we defined form the instant messages provide an important tool for investigating new language and the correlation results provide partial evidence that new language does not have a
harmful effect on conventional written language.
a) What was(were) the research question(s) in this study?
b) What research design did we use?
c) What types of data did we collect?
d) Where did we collect the data?
e) What was(were) the answer(s) to the research question(s)?
a) Does electronic communication affect spelling in written communication?
b) A correlational design, or even a quasi-experimental design was used.
c) Self-reported data was collected.
d) The data was collected in the field.
e) It turns out that electronic communication does not affect spelling in written communication for the most part.
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