Learning

Definitions:

• learning -  some experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner.

• behavior - observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals

• habituation - a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

• classical conditioning - when a neutral stimulus evokes a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response

• unconditioned stimulus - something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

• unconditioned response - a reflexive reaction that is reliably elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

• conditioned stimulus - a stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliable response in an organism

• conditioned response - a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

• operant conditioning - a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

• stimulus - sensory input from the environment

• response - an action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus

• reinforcement - the consequences of a behavior that determine whether it will be more likely that the behavior will occur again

• punisher - any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

• shaping - learning that results from the reinforcement of successive approximations to a final desired behavior

• interval schedules - based on the time intervals between reinforcements

• ratio schedules - based on the ratio of responses to reinforcements

• continuous reinforcement - special case of presenting reinforcement after each response

• fixed ratio schedule - an operant conditioning principle in which the reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

• variable ratio schedule - an operant conditioning principle in which the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses

• fixed interval schedule - an operant conditioning principle in which reinforcements are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made

• variable interval schedule - an operant conditioning principle in which behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement

• extinction - the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the US is no longer presented

• spontaneous recovery - the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a test period

• generalization - a process in which the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the original one used during acquisition

• discrimination - the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

• secondary reinforcer - derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning

• cognitive map - a mental representation of the physical features of the environment

• latent learning - a condition in which something is learned but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future

• observational learning - a condition in which learning takes place by watching the actions of others

Learning Objectives:

Identify components of the classical conditioning paradigm

• Conditioned Stimulus: The CS (conditioned stimulus) is presented in several trials.
• Unconditioned Stimulus: Each presentation of the CS is followed closely by presentation of the US (unconditioned stimulus)
• Unconditioned Response: Presentation of the US causes a UR
• Conditioned Response: After a sufficient number of presentations of the CS followed by the US, the experimenter presents the CS without the US. If a response occurs, the UR is now called a conditioned response (CR).

Elaborate Examples of the Classical Conditioning in the world around us
ex 1) You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it.

• flu is the US
• nausea is the UR.
• new food is the CS
• nausea to the new food is the CR

ex 2) An individual receives frequent injections of drugs, which are administered in a small examination room at a clinic. The drug itself causes increased heart rate but after several trips to the clinic, simply being in a small room causes an increased heart rate.

• drug is the US
• accelerated heart rate is the UR
• small room is the CS
• accelerated heart rate to the room is the CR

Identify components of operant conditioning paradigm method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior

A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:

-Positive Reinforcer: favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.

-Negative Reinforcer: involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.

Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:

-Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.

-Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.

Compare/ Contrast Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning always involves anticipatory biological responses triggered by a signal. The response is drawn out of the organism or elicited. In operant conditioning, by contrast, the animal generates the behavior on its own, as a way of achieving a goal. The behavior is emitted.

Compare/ Contrast positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment

Positive reinforcement is when something is given to the subject (like candy) in order to reinforce the behavior and get them to do it again. Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, is when something is taken away from the subject (pain or electrocution) in order reinforce the behavior and get them to do it again.



Punishment - Just like there is positive and negative reinforcement, there is also positive and negative punishment. Positive punishment is the presentation of a stimulus that decreases the future likelihood a behavior will occur. Negative punishment is the removal of a stimulus that decreases the likelihood a behavior will occur again.



Reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior; punishment decreases and weakens.



Identify examples of negative reinforcement
-Taking aspirin to relieve headache ⇒ headache as negative reinforcer to taking medication.


-Loud buzz in some cars when ignition key is turned on; driver must put on safety belt in order to eliminate irritating beeping ⇒ the beeping is a negative reinforcer for putting on the seat-belt

Elaborate examples of operant conditioning in the world around us


ex 1) A lion in a circus learns to stand up on a chair and jump through a hoop to receive a food treat.

• The food treat is a positive reinforcement because it is given and it increases the behavior.

ex 2) A professor has a policy of exempting students from the final exam if they maintain perfect attendance during the quarter. His students’ attendance increases dramatically.

• The exemption from the final exam is a negative reinforcement because something is taken away that increases the behavior (attendance).

Understand how some forms of punishment are ineffective


Punishment just displays that an unacceptable behavior has occurred, but it doesn’t explain to the individual what should be done instead. This is why punishment is ineffective. Spanking a child because he has displayed “bad” behavior does not explain to him what he should do instead, causing the behavior to be repeated. Reinforcement is more effective. 

Recognize different species-typical behavior 

When Breland and Breland were training raccoons to play around with a ball through classical conditioning, the raccoons ended up treating the ball like they would normally a piece of food; they would clean the ball in water, and not perform the wanted task. This habit of grooming is a species-typical behavior.
Describe how species-typical behaviors may affect ability to learn

In the case above-mentioned, species-typical behaviors can inhibit the ability to learn, say, how to play with a ball if you were a raccoon. In other cases, such as teaching a bird to sing, certain species such as the lyra bird are predisposed to be able to be taught a certain song. In fact, they probably would do so nonetheless.

Thought Question:

Q: Food aggression in dogs is when a dog protects its food, sometimes even attacking another dog or human who might get too close to the food bowl. This form of aggression is often the reason why a stray animal is determined to not be adoptable. Describe the functional utility of food  aggression in dogs. Using principles of classical conditioning, explain how food aggression may be maintained even when the dog is in a loving, accepting home. 

A: Classical conditioning is when a neutral stimulus evokes a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response. A way to maintain the food aggression would be to deter the dog from food by using a neutral stimulus.